Management of Hyperglycemic Crises in Patients With Diabetes
- Abbas E. Kitabchi, PHD, MD,
- Guillermo E. Umpierrez, MD,
- Mary Beth Murphy, RN, MS, CDE, MBA,
- Eugene J. Barrett, MD, PHD,
- Robert A. Kreisberg, MD,
- John I. Malone, MD and
- Barry M. Wall, MD
- From the Division of Endocrinology (A.E.K., G.E.U., M.B.M.), University of Tennessee, and the Department of Nephrology (B.M.W.), Veterans Administration Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee; the Division of Endocrinology (E.J.B.), University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia; the College of Medicine (R.A.K.), University of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama; and the Department of Pediatrics (J.I.M.), University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida.
- Address correspondence and reprint requests to Abbas E. Kitabchi, PhD, MD, University of Tennessee, Memphis, Division of Endocrinology, 951 Court Ave., Room 335M, Memphis, TN 38163. E-mail: akitabchi{at}utmem.edu .
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS) are two of the most serious acute complications of diabetes. These hyperglycemic emergencies continue to be important causes of morbidity and mortality among patients with diabetes in spite of major advances in the understanding of their pathogenesis and more uniform agreement about their diagnosis and treatment. The annual incidence rate for DKA estimated from population-based studies ranges from 4.6 to 8 episodes per 1,000 patients with diabetes (1,2), and in more recent epidemiological studies in the U.S., it was estimated that hospitalizations for DKA during the past two decades are increasing (3). Currently, DKA appears in 4-9% of all hospital discharge summaries among patients with diabetes (4,5). The incidence of HHS is difficult to determine because of the lack of population-based studies and the multiple combined illnesses often found in these patients. In general, it is estimated that the rate of hospital admissions due to HHS is lower than the rate due to DKA and accounts for <1% of all primary diabetic admissions (4,5,6).
Treatment of patients with DKA and HHS uses significant health care resources, which increases health care costs. In 1983, the cost of hospitalization for DKA in Rhode Island for 1 year was estimated to be $225 million (2). It was recently reported that treatment of DKA episodes represents more than one of every four health care dollars spent on direct medical care for adult patients with type 1 diabetes and for one of every two dollars in those patients experiencing multiple episodes of ketoacidosis (7). Based on an annual average of ∼100,000 hospitalizations for DKA in the U.S. (4) and estimated annual mean medical care charges of ∼$13,000 per patient experiencing a DKA episode (7), the annual hospital cost for patients …
