In Utero Dietary Exposures and Risk of Islet Autoimmunity in Children
Article Figures & Tables
Tables
- Table 1—
Demographic and pregnancy characteristics and risk of IA in offspring
Characteristic Affected Unaffected Unadjusted HR (95% CI) Wald χ2P n 16 206 Age at last follow-up (years)* 4.3 ± 1.9 4.0 ± 1.4 NA† NA† Child’s sex (% male) 7 (43.7) 101 (49.0) 0.87 (0.32–2.33) 0.779 Child’s ethnicity (% non-Hispanic Caucasian) 15 (93.7) 152 (73.8) 5.29 (0.7–40.06) 0.133 Maternal age at delivery (years) 31.3 ± 6.0 29.7 ± 5.8 1.26 (0.8–1.96)‡ 0.331 Maternal education at delivery (% ≤12 years) 4 (25.0) 48 (23.3) 1.09 (0.35–3.39) 0.878 Income at delivery (% <$30,000/year)§ 4 (26.7) 48 (23.8) 1.04 (0.33–3.28) 0.942 Birth weight (g)§ 3,122.9 ± 564.9 3,286.4 ± 527.7 0.74 (0.47–1.18)‡ 0.238 Pre- or post-term delivery§ 2 (13.3) 69 (33.7) 0.31 (0.07–1.37) 0.148 Cesarean delivery 1 (6.2) 43 (20.9) 0.27 (0.04–2.04) 0.226 Breast-fed <3 months§ 6 (37.5) 66 (32.3) 1.3 (0.47–3.56) 0.619 GDM 3 (18.8) 3 (1.5) 9.64 (2.74–33.97) 0.006 First-degree type 1 diabetic relative 6 (37.5) 62 (30.1) 1.71 (0.62–4.75) 0.302 HLA-DR3/4, DQ8 genotype 14 (87.5) 129 (62.6) 3.17 (0.72–14.01) 0.166 Data are means ± SD or n (%) unless otherwise indicated.
↵* For affected, average age at first positive test for IA is 2.5 ± 1.7 years;
↵† outcome determined by difference in age of affected subject at first positive visit and age at last negative visit;
↵‡ HR associated with incremental values: maternal age = 5 years, birth weight = 500 g;
↵§ missing observations include income: one in the affected group (6.2%) and four (1.9%) in the unaffected group, birth weight: one from the unaffected group (0.5%), pre- or post-term delivery: one in each affected (6.2%) and unaffected group (0.5%), and breast-feeding duration: two missing observations from unaffected group (1.0%).
- Table 2—
Maternal dietary exposures during pregnancy and risk of IA in offspring
Parameters (mean daily intake) Affected Unaffected Unadjusted HR (95% CI) Wald χ2P n 16 206 Vitamin D intake via food (IU) 167.6 252.3 0.49 (0.26–0.94)* 0.059 Vitamin D intake via supplements (IU) ≥400 13 (81.3) 116 (56.3) 3.09 (0.88–10.83) 0.107 EPA and DHA (ω-3 fatty acids) (g) ≥0.10 9 (56.3) 137 (66.5) 0.64 (0.24–1.71) 0.380 Linolenic acid (ω-3 fatty acid) (g) 1.4 1.3 1.16 (0.75–1.80)* 0.503 Arachidonic acid (ω-6 fatty acid) (g) 0.13 0.14 0.88 (0.5–1.56)* 0.672 Linoleic acid (ω-6 fatty acid) (g)† <7.92 4 (25.0) 71 (34.5) 1.0 (referent) 7.92–11.78 8 (50.0) 66 (32.0) 2.01 (0.55–7.37) 0.274 >11.78 4 (25.0) 69 (33.5) 1.04 (0.26–4.16) 0.955 Ratio of ω-6 total:ω-3 total 7.9 7.8 1.13 (0.70–1.83)* 0.624 Caloric intake (kcal)† <1,718.88 5 (31.2) 68 (33.0) 1.0 (referent) 1,718.88–2,491.04 9 (56.2) 67 (32.5) 1.61 (0.54–4.82) 0.405 >2,491.04 2 (12.5) 71 (34.5) 0.37 (0.07–1.93) 0.258 Data are n (%) unless otherwise indicated.
↵* HR represent risk for an SD difference in intake: SD vitamin D = 155.6 IU; SD linolenic acid = 0.69 g; SD arachidonic acid = 0.08 g; SD ratio ω-6 total to ω-3 total = 2.00;
↵† categorized as tertiles because variable did not meet the assumption of log linearity.
- Table 3—
Multivariate survival analysis examining maternal vitamin D intake via food during pregnancy and risk of IA and persistent IA
Risk factors* IA adjusted HR (95% CI) Wald χ2P Persistent IA adjusted HR (95% CI) Wald χ2P n 16 11 Vitamin D intake via food (IU) 0.37 (0.17–0.78) 0.020 0.58 (0.27–1.28)† 0.205 First-degree type 1 diabetic relative 5.15 (1.45–18.28) 0.021 6.74 (1.62–28.03) 0.031 HLA-DR 3/4, DQ8 genotype 9.79 (1.69–56.83) 0.029 9.14 (1.50–55.85) 0.054 GDM 7.78 (1.83–33.03) 0.011 2.05 (0.22–19.02) 0.528 Child’s ethnicity (% non-Hispanic Caucasian) 6.97 (0.88–55.46) 0.088 Not calculable‡ NA
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