Determinants of Body Fat in Infants of Women With Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Differ With Fetal Sex
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Tables
- Table 1
Maternal characteristics of the study cohort of 84 women with GDM
Maternal characteristic Whole group (N = 84) Male infant (n = 42) Female infant (n = 42) Gestation at delivery (weeks) 39.3 ± 1.1 39.3 ± 1.0 39.4 ± 1.2 Maternal age (years) 32.5 ± 4.8 32.8 ± 5.0 32.3 ± 4.6 Maternal BMI (kg/m2) 28.2 ± 7.7 28.1 ± 6.4 28.3 ± 8.8 Number of women overweight (BMI 25–30) 22 (26.2) 13 (31.0) 9 (21.4) Number of women obese (BMI >30) 28 (33.3) 15 (35.7) 13 (31.0) Nulliparous 42 (50) 23 (55) 19 (45) Gestational weight gain (kg) 12.0 ± 6.1 11.8 ± 5.7 12.3 ± 6.8 Ethnicity White 57 (67.9) 30 (71.4) 27 (64.3) Indian 8 (9.5) 4 (9.5) 4 (9.5) Other* 12 (14.3) 5 (11.9) 7 (16.7) Unrecorded 7 (8.3) 3 (7.1) 4 (9.5) Smokers 5 (5.9) 3 (7.1) 2 (4.8) Insulin therapy 20 (24) 11 (26) 9 (21) Metformin therapy 6 (7.1) 5 (11.9) 1 (2.4) GTT fasting (mmol/L) 4.88 ± 0.65 4.95 ± 0.72 4.80 ± 0.55 GTT 2 h (mmol/L) 9.01 ± 1.08 9.06 ± 0.85 8.95 ± 1.28 Gestation at diagnosis (weeks) 27.8 ± 4.9 27.7 ± 5.4 27.9 ± 4.3 Treatment commenced (weeks) 29.2 ± 4.8 29.2 ± 5.3 29.2 ± 4.4 Mean fasting BGL (mmol/L) 4.96 ± 0.47 5.01 ± 0.46 4.90 ± 0.49 Mean postprandial BGL (mmol/L) 6.06 ± 0.52 6.06 ± 0.49 6.06 ± 0.55 Data are mean ± SD or n (%). GTT, glucose tolerance test.
↵*Other ethnicities (n) include Aboriginal (3), Filipino (2), Maori (2), Malaysian (1), Solomon Islander (1), Vietnamese (1), Chinese (1), and Afghani (1).
- Table 2
Infant characteristics of the whole study cohort and according to sex of the infant
Infant characteristic Whole group (N = 84) Male infant (n = 42) Female infant (n = 42) Birth weight (g) 3,536 ± 513 3,592 ± 505 3,481 ± 521 Mean birth weight z score 0.436 ± 1.084 0.420 ± 1.054 0.451 ± 1.126 Birth weight <10th percentile 3 (3.6) 1 (2.4) 2 (4.8) Birth weight >90th percentile 16 (19.0) 9 (21.4) 7 (16.7) Birth weight >4,000 g 14 (16.7) 9 (21.4) 5 (11.9) Fat free mass (g) 2,889 ± 329 2,943 ± 314 2,835 ± 340 Infant percent body fat 12.1 ± 4.3* 11.6 ± 4.4* 12.7 ± 4.1* Infant percent body fat >90th percentile 21 (25.0)* 12 (28.6)* 9 (21.4)* Data are mean ± SD or n (%).
↵*Indicates significantly different to that in infants born to normal-weight, nondiabetic women (12).
- Table 3
Univariate analysis of predictors of infant percent body fat in male and female infants arranged by strength of the association
Variable N R (R2) Slope estimate P value Male Mean third trimester fasting BGL (mmol/L) 42 0.54 (0.30) 5.27 <0.001 Mean third trimester postprandial BGL (mmol/L) 42 0.39 (0.15) 3.47 0.01 Parity (1 = nulliparous, 2 = other) 42 0.34 (0.12) 0.02 Ethnicity (white/other) 42 0.30 (0.09) 0.05 Insulin (0 = no, 1 = yes) 42 0.25 (0.06) 0.10 GTT fasting (mmol/L) 38 0.22 (0.05) 0.04 0.17 Gestation at diagnosis (weeks) 39 0.21 (0.04) −0.18 0.19 Maternal age (years) 42 0.14 (0.02) 0.12 0.36 Maternal prepregnancy BMI (kg/m2) 42 0.13 (0.02) 0.09 0.39 Gestational age (weeks) 42 0.10 (0.009) 0.42 0.54 Gestational weight gain (kg) 42 0.10 (0.009) −0.07 0.53 GTT 2 h (mmol/L) 39 0.09 (0.007) −0.44 0.61 Female Maternal prepregnancy BMI (kg/m2) 42 0.32 (0.10) 0.14 0.04 GTT 2 h (mmol/L) 37 0.30 (0.08) −0.93 0.07 Parity (1 = nulliparous, 2 = other) 42 0.24 (0.06) 0.11 Gestational age (weeks) 42 0.17 (0.03) 0.60 0.29 Gestation at diagnosis (weeks) 39 0.13 (0.02) −0.12 0.42 Mean third trimester postprandial BGL (mmol/L) 42 0.12 (0.02) 0.96 0.42 Mean third trimester fasting BGL (mmol/L) 42 0.11 (0.01) 0.90 0.51 GTT fasting (mmol/L) 36 0.10 (0.01) 0.74 0.55 Maternal age (years) 42 0.08 (0.007) 0.007 0.59 Insulin (0 = no, 1 = yes) 42 −0.07 (0.004) 0.66 Ethnicity (white/other) 42 0.03 (0.0009) 0.82 Gestational weight gain (kg) 42 0.02 (0.0003) 0.007 0.91 GTT, glucose tolerance test.
- Table 4
Multiple regression analysis of predictors of infant percent body fat in male and female infants
Model Overall R (R2) Standardized coefficient (β) Slope estimate Male Best model: fasting BGL + parity 0.58 (0.34) Fasting BGL (mmol/L) 0.45 4.39 Parity (1 = nulliparous, 2 = other) 0.22 1.94 Best model + BMI 0.58 (0.34) Fasting BGL 0.44 Parity 0.24 BMI 0.04 Best female model: BMI + GA + parity 0.47 (0.22) Female Best model: BMI + parity + GA 0.44 (0.19) BMI (kg/m2) 0.24 0.11 Parity (1 = nulliparous, 2 = other) 0.25 2.07 GA (weeks) 0.20 0.71 Best model + fasting BGL 0.44 (0.19) BMI 0.23 Parity 0.24 GA 0.20 Fasting BGL 0.04 Best male model: fasting BGL + parity 0.33 (0.11) Fasting BGL, mean maternal third trimester fasting BGL; BMI, maternal prepregnancy BMI; GA, gestational age.
Current Issue
February 2021
Volume 44, Issue 2
Determinants of Body Fat in Infants of Women With Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Differ With Fetal Sex
